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-g A SYLLABUS OF "8? 

PSYCHOLOGY 



MARK A. MAY 

Syracuse University 




PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY BOOK STORE 
Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y. 



Copyright 1920 by Mark A. May 



A SYLLABUS OF PSYCHOLOGY 



MARK aPmAY 
Syracuse University 



PUBUSHED BY THE UNIVERSITY BOOK STORE 
Syracuse University, Syracu?e, N. Y. 









TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Chapter 

I. Problems, Aims, Standpoints, Subject-matter and Methods 
of Psychology 

II. The Nervous System 

III. Neural Mechanisms and Neural Activity 

IV. Attention and Attitude 

V. Stimulation: The Stimuli and Receptors 

VI. Sensation: The Effects of Stimulation on Consciousness 

VII. Unlearned Motor Responses: Reflexes and Instincts 

VIII. Unlearned Mental Responses : Emotions and Feelings 

IX. Learned Motor Responses: Habit 

X. Formation of Mental Responses: Learning and Retention 

XI. Learned Mental Responses: Recall and Recognition 

XII. Learned Mental Responses: Imagery and Imagination 

XIII. Learned Mental Responses: Perception 

XIV. Learned Mental Responses : Thinking and Reasoning 
XV. Integrations. 



©CU576548 



SEP 22 1920 



r PREFACE 

i This Syllabus is intended to serve three purposes. In the first 

5T)lace, it is an attempt to apply the biological formula of stimulus and 

^ response to the whole field of human psychology. This formula has 

r been used as a method of analysis in certain parts of psychology, but 

it has not been worked systematically through to thp pnH Such a 

p systematic application requires that psychology be regarded as a sci- 

J ence of behavior. The term "behavior," however, can be made to 

include much more than the strict behaviorist would allow. In this 

syllabus behavior will include mental acts (defined as acts observable 

only by the person performing them) and motor acis (defined as acts 

observable by both the performer and others) . The basic proposition 

of the course is that any act of behavior, whether mental or motor, 

can be analyzed by the formula: Preparation — Stimulus — Response. 

This formula furnishes both a method of analysis and an outline for 

the course. The outline is presented in schematic form on page 3. 

Another purpose of this syllabus is to avoid the use of a textbook 
by presenting to the student a schematic outline into which the facts 
given in the most widely used texts can be placed. Judged by the 
publishers' sales lists the following textbooks are most commonly 
used for elementary courses : 

Pillsbury, W. B. The Essentials of Psychology. (Revised edition.) 

Breese, B. B. Psychology. 

Titchener, E. B. A Textbook of Psychology. 

Titchener, E. B. A Beginner's Psychology. 

Watson, J. B. Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist. 

Warren, H. C. Human Psychology. 

James, Wm. Psychology (Briefer Course). 

The outline is arranged so that the facts common to a majority of 
these texts can be readily fitted into it. Moreover, most of the facts 
and principles given in any one book will fit the scheme. 

Finally, this syllabus represents an attempt to present the facts 
and principles of elementary psychology in such a way that they can 
be readily understood and easily remembered by the average student. 
From the student's point of view a great difficulty with most text- 
books on psychology is that they are merely a series of chapters. 
Even in cases where the data are organized according to some prin- 
ciple, the principle lies so far in the background that most students 
miss it entirely. This condition of affairs is reversed here; the out- 
line stands out boldly. Indeed, to a trained psychologist, this may 
appear as merely a mnemonic scheme. But if it aids the student in 
understanding and remembering the facts, its purpose will be accom- 
plished. 

Mark A. May. 
Syracuse, New York. 
August, 1920. 



TO THE STUDENT 

This course is planned to run for one semester of fifteen weeks. 
There are fifteen chapters, one for each week. There will be two 
lectures on each chapter, and one quizz. The quizzes will be partly 
oral and partly written. The marks for the course will be based on 
the quizzes and the final examination. 

The blank pages following each chapter are to be used for notes 
and for records of class demonstrations and experiments. All stu- 
dents are expected to take notes on both the lectures and the read- 
ings. The notes should be outlined according to the outline of the 
chapter. The plan of outlining in each chapter is as follows: The 
main sections of each chapter are lettered with capitals, A. B. C. etc. 
The sub-topics of the next order are numbered with Roman numerals. 
The sub- topic of the second order are numbered with arabics; the 
third order sub-topics with arabics with one apostrophe, etc. For 
example : 

A. 

I. - - - - - 

1. 

1'. 

1". 

In all cases it will not be necessary to write out the main headings 
or the first sub-topics in the notes. Your notes should consist of sub- 
topics of the second, third and fourth order and so on. 

References are listed at the end of each chapter according to 
authors and sections. The names of the books to be used are given 
in the preface. You will be expected to spend six hours each week in 
reading. In most cases all the references given on a chapter can be 
read in that time. 

Each student is requested to keep a list of questions concerning 
points not clearly understood and to present these questions at the 
quizz each week. 



SCHEMA OF THE COURSE 



INTRODUCTION 



^Problems, Standpoints, Subject-matter, etc Chapter I 

f Reasons for study, ] 
Ixhe Nervous System ] g-tH^rn'al"* Chapter II 



[ Autonomic 

I r Neural Mechanisms 

Neurology j Neural Activity 
Reaction Time 



.Chapter III 



PREPARATION 



/Specific r Mental factors 

( and 

iResident I Motor factors 



Attention 



) General f Mental factors 

' and < [ Attitude 

\ Remote [Motor factors J 



-Chapter IV 



STIMULATION 



, Stimuli 



r Quality 
[ Intensity 



{Structure 
Stimuli 
How stimulated 

Sensation f Qualities 

[ Theories 



.Chapter V 



-Chapter VI 



RESPONSES 



'Unlearned 



Learned 



r Motor 



Mental 



Motor 



Mental 



r Reflexes 
[ Instincts 
r Emotions 
[ Feelings 
f Habits 



.Chapter VII 
.Chapter VIII 
.Chapter IX 



[ Voluntary Acts J 

Learning and Retention.. Chapter X 
Recall and Recognition.. Chapter XI 
Imagery & Imagination.. Chapter XII 

I Perception Chapter XIII 

[ Thinking & Reasoning... .Chapter XIV 



INTEGRATIONS 



Intelligence 1 

Character 

Individuality 

Personality 

Self 



.Chapter XV 



CHAPTER I 

PROBLEMS, AIMS, STANDPOINTS, SUBJECT-MATTER AND 
METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY 

A. Purposes of Psychology. Why Study Psychology? 

I. Practical Reasons. 

1. To get a systematic knowledge of one's self. 

2. To understand the behavior of others. 

II. Scientific Reasons. 

1. To make one a better observer of the facts of mental 
life. 

2. To learn certain facts and principles for the sake of 
knowing them. 

B. Problems of Psychology. 

I. To Analyze and Describe the Facts of Mental Life. 
II. To Classify and Integrate the Facts of Mental Life. 

III. To Discover Laws and Principles Governing Mental Activ- 
ity and to Formulate Theories Concerning Them. 

IV. To Measure Psychological Data. 

C. Standpoints' and Aims of Psychology. 

I. The Structural Point of View and Its Aims. 

II. The Behavioristic Point of View and Its Aims. 

III. The Dynamic Point of View and Its Aims. 

IV. The Functional Point of View and Its Aims. 

D. Subject-Matter of Psychology. 

The subject-matter with which a psychologist deals depends on : 

I. His View of the Relation of Psychology to Other Sciences. 

1. The general relations. 

2. Specific relations. 

II. The General Point of View Taken. 

1. For the structuralist the subject-matter is 

2. For the behaviorist the subject-matter is 

3. For the dynamist the subject-matter is 

4. For the functionalist the subject-matter is 

III. The Divisions of the Subject-matter. 

E. Methods of Psychology. 

I. A Schema of Psychological Methods. 

OBSERVATION— 

Your Own Experiences 

(Controlled — Introspection (a) 

Present] 

[Uncontrolled — Introspection (b) 

[Controlled — Retrospection (c) 

Past] 

[Uncontrolled — Retrospection (d) 



Experiences of Others 



fBiographies ] 



Past — Uncontrolled j Questionaries [ (e) 

[Autobiographies 

rControlled — Laboratory Method (f ) 

Present] 

[Uncontrolled — General observation (g) 

II. The Particular Method Emphasized Depends in Part on 
The Point of View One Takes. 

1. The structuralist emphasizes methods — 

2. The behaviorist emphasizes methods — - 

3. The dynamic and functional points of view emphasize 
methods — 

III. The Laboratory Method. 

1. Introspection vs. retrospection. 

2. Introspection and inspection the same. 

3. Requirements of a laboratory experiment. 

4. Forms of the laboratory method. 

IV. Objections to the Methods of Introspection. 

1. One cannot think and observe his thinking at the same 
time. 

2. One subject's introspections cannot be verified by other 
subjects' introspections. 

3. The so-called "stimulus error." 

F. Definitions of Psychology. 

I. A Structuralist's definition. 

II. A Behaviorist's definition. 

III. A Dynamist's definition. 

IV. A Functionalist's definition. 

G. Evaluation of These Points of View. 

I. The Structural. 

1. In favor of it. 

2. Against it. 

II. The Behavioristic. 

1. In favor of it. 

2. Against it. 

III. The Dynamic. 

1. In favor of it. 

2. Against it. 

IV. The Functional. 

1. In favor of it. 

2. Against it. 

REFERENCES 

Section Watson Warren Titchener Pillsbury Breese Woodworth 

Beginners Dynamic 

A 1-8 1-5 

B 14-18 



C 

2 1-6 10-15 1-6 

E 19-26 7-10 

F & G 5-14 1-7 



20-37 



CHAPTER II 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 

A. Reasons for Studying the Nervous System. 

I. Because of the Close Connection Between It and Conscious- 
ness and Behavior. 

1. Biological evidence of this close connection. 

2. Pathological evidence. 

II. Because the facts of consciousness and behavior can best be 
understood in the light of a knowledge of the operations of 
the nervous system. 

B. The Development of The Nervous System. 

I. Phylogenetic Development (development in the species). 

1. The structural order of development. 

2. The functional order of development. 

II. Ontogenetic Development (development in the individual) . 
(Structure and function cannot be separated here.) 

C. The Cerebro-Spinal Nervous System. 

I. Its Structure. 

1. The gross structure. 

1'. The spinal cord. 
2'. The brain stem. 
3'. The cerebral hemispheres. 

2. The finer structure. 

1'. The neurone and its parts. 
2'. Tracts and ganglia. 

II. Its Function. 

1. General functions. 

2. Specific functions. 

3. Functions of the spinal cord. 

4. Functions of the cerebellum. 

5. Functions of the brain stem. 

6. Functions of the cerebral hemispheres. 

1'. How the areas were located. 

2'. The motor areas. 

3'. The somaesthetic areas. 

4'. Areas of the special senses. 

5'. Association areas. 

D. The Autonomic Nervous System. (Sympathetic Nervous Sys- 
tem.) 

I. Its Structure. 

1. Arrangement of ganglia. 

2. Arrangement of fibers. -^**»*- 



II. Its Function. 

1. Specific functions. 

2. General functions. 







REFERENCES 




jction 


Breese 


Pillsbury Warren Titchener Watson 


James 






Beginners 


B.Cr. 


A 


22 


17-19 10-14 


101-104 


B 


23-25 


19-21 17-24 




C 


38-52 


32-44 32-45 122-152 




D 




154-158 





i* 



CHAPTER III. 
NEURAL MECHANISMS AND NEURAL ACTIVITY. 

A. Neural Mechanisms. 

I. The mechanistic nature of the entire organism. 
II. The arrangement of neurones in circuits. 

1. The reflex arc. 

1'. The simple arc. 
2'. The complex arc. 

2. Divergent and convergent mechanisms. 
III. Synaptic Mechanisms. 

1. Definition of the synapse. 

2. The importance of the synapse. 

3. Theories concerning the nature of synaptic mechan- 
isms. 

B. Neural Activity. 

I. The Activity of the Simple Arc. 

1. The direction of travel of nervous impulses. 

2. The speed of conduction. 

3. The nature of the nerve impulse. 

II. Activity of Complex Arcs. 

1. Summation and distribution of impulses. 

2. Facilitation and inhibition. 

3. Multiple stimuli and multiple response. 

4. Negative adaptation. 

III. Unity of Action of the Nervous System. 

1. The simple arc is an abstraction. 

2. Organization into ''higher units." 

3. The spread of neural activity. 

C. Reaction Time. 

I. Reasons for Studying It Here. 
II. Simple Reaction Time. 

III. Compound Reactions. 

1. Definition and technic of measurement. 

2. Conditions causing variations in time. 

1. Discriminative reactions. 

2. Choice reactions. 

3. Ways in which compound reaction times vary. 

IV. Reaction Time in Everyday Life. 
V.Analysis of Reaction Time. 

1. The fore-period. What takes place in it? 

2. The main-period. What takes place in it? 

3. The after-period. What takes place in it? 



D. Psychological Principles Illustrated by Reaction Time. 

I. The Principle of Preparation. The following is a schema 
of the principle : 



[Specific (Attention) 
PREPARATION 



[Motor— 
1 Mental— 



[Motor — 
General (Attitude) | 

[Mental — 
II. The Principle of Stimulation. 

Stimulation requires: 

1. A stimulus. 

2. A receptor. 

III. The Principle of Response. 

1. Unlearned Responses. 

1\ Motor- reflexes and instincts. 
2'. Mental- feelings and emotions. 

2. Learned Responses. 

1'. Motor- habits and voluntary acts. 

2\ Mental- memory, perception and thought. 

Note: — Any act of behavior, whether mental or motor, can be 
analyzed by the formula: Preparation — Stimulus — Response. The 
remainder of this course will deal with these three principles in this 
order, with a final word on Integrations. 

REFERENCES 

Section Watson Warren Pillsbury Titchener James Woodworth 

Textbook Dynamic 

Psychology 
A I & II 96-97 31-35 

A III 118-120 51-57 

B 120-122 59-70 28-30 38-40 

C 428-447 Vol.1 85-97 108-115 

D 73-91 



% 



CHAPTER IV 
ATTENTION AND ATTITUDE 

A. The Nature of Preparation. The principle of preparation con- 

sists of two factors, selection and control. It is the stimuli 
that are selected and the responses that are controlled. 

I. Selection of Stimuli. 

1. Complete selection. 

2. Partial selection. 

3. Selection of internal stimuli. 

4. Selection not always a conscious process. 

II. Control of Responses. 

1. The multiple possibilities of response. 

2. Combination of responses into patterns. 

III. Factors in Selection and Control. 

1. Factors, resident and specific — Attention. 

2. Factors, remote and general — Attitude. 

B. Attention: Resident and Specific Preparation. 

I. Classical Views of Attention. 

1. Attention as concentration. 

2. Attention as clearness. 

II. Selective Agencies. 

1. Agencies primarily mental. 

V. The idea in mind. 

2\ The question or problem. 

3'. Expectancy. 

2. Agencies primarily motor. 

V. Adjustments of the sense organs. 
2'. Muscular adjustments. 

III. Controlling Factors. 

1. Factors primarily mental. 

V. Mental set. 

2'. Context. 

3'. The problem or question. 

2. Factors primarily motor. 

1\ Certain bodily movements. 
2'. Kinesthetic factors. 

IV. General Characteristics of Attention. 

1. The span of attention. 

2. The duration of attention. 

3. The neural basis of attention. 

4. The effects of attention. 



C. Attitude: General and Remote Preparation. 

(Here the factors that select the stimuli and control the re- 
sponses cannot be easily separated.) 

I. Factors Primarily Mental. 

1. Hereditary factors. 

2. Educational factors. 

3. Interest factors. 

4. Motive factors. 

n. Factors Primarily Motor. 

1. Physiological condition. 

2. Attitudes of conduct. 

HI. Classification of Attitudes. 

REFERENCES 

Sec- Pillsbury Breese Warreni James Woodworth Titchener 

tion Dynamic Beginners 

A 112-115 Br.C.217 105-110 

BI 129-130 Vol. 1 402-403 90-93 

BII 

&III 117-121 Br.C. 229-232 

127-128 Vol. 1 434-447 120-126 

B IV 131-137 67-83 Vol. 1 424-434 

C 121-124 84-85 360-373 



CHAPTER V 
STIMULATION: THE STIMULI AND RECEPTORS 

A. The Nature of Stimulation. 

I. The Role of the Stimulus. 

1. Stimuli vary in quality. 

2. Stimuli vary in intensity (quantity). 

II. The Role of The Receptors. 
Receptors vary in respect to : 

1. Biological importance. 

2. Complexity of structure. 

3. Initial inertia. 

4. After-effects of stimulation. 

5. Adaptation to the stimulus. 

III. The Role of the Sensory Nerves. 

Sensory Nerves vary in respect to : 

B. The Stimuli. 

1. Structure. 

2. Function. 

I. Qualitative Aspects. 

1. Mode of stimulation. 

2. Suddenness of stimulation. 

3. Stimulus vs. situation. 

II. Quantative Aspects. 

1. Liminal and terminal stimuli. 

2. Weber's law and its interpretations. 

C. The Receptors. 

I. Receptors for Stimuli from the Outside World. 

1. The eye. 

1*. Its structure. 

2'. Its stimuli. 

3'. How the retina is stimulated. 

2. The ear. 

1'. Its structure. 

2\ Its stimuli. 

3'. How the Basilar membrane is stimulated. 

3. . The skin. 

1*. Its structure. 

2*. Its stimuli. 

3*. How the end organs are stimulated. 

4. The tongue. 

1*. Its structure. 

2*. Its stimuli. 

3'. How the taste bulbs are stimulated. 

5. The nose. 

1\ Its structure. 

2\ Its stimuli. 

3*. How the olfactory membrane is stimulated. 



II. Receptors for Stimuli Due to Movements of the Muscles and 
Limbs. 

1. The muscles. 

1*. Their structure. 
2\ Their stimuli. 
3'. How stimulated. 

2. The tendons. 

1'. Their structure. 
2'. Their stimuli. 
3\ How stimulated. 

3. The joints. 

1'. Their structure. 
2\ Their stimuli. 
3'. How stimulated. 

4. The vestibule and semi-circular canals. 
1'. Their structure. 

2\ Their stimuli. 
3'. How stimulated. 

III. Receptors for Stimuli Coming Mainly From the Viscera. 
1. The alim.entary canal. 



Section 

A 
BI 
BII 
C 



2. The respiratory system. 




3. The 


circulatory organs. 




4. The 


sex organs. 

REFERENCES 




Breese 


Watson Warren Titchener 


James 




Textbook 


B,Cr. 


91-96 


74-81 




89-90 


9-11 


10-12 


98-103 


210-223 




130-140 


48-103 151-163 




144-154 


184-191 




166-178 


196-213 





CHAPTER VI 

SENSATION: THE EFFECTS OF STIMULATION ON 
CONSCIOUSNESS 

A. General Considerations. 

I. Sensation and Stimulation. 

1. The effects of stimuli on consciousness. 

2. The effects of consciousness on stimulation. 
II. Attributes of Sensation. 

1. Quality. 

2. Duration. 

3. Intensity. 

4. Extensity. 

5. Vividness. 

III. Classification of Sensations. 

1. On the basis of introspective analysis. 

2. On the basis of the receptors. 

B. Visual Sensations. 

I. Qualities. 

1. Classification of qualities. 

2. Relations to stimuli. 

3. Color pyramid. 

II. Chromatic Sensations. These vary: 

1. In respect to the length of the light wave (color tone). 

2. In respect to the amplitude of the light wave (bright- 
ness). 

3. In respect to* the complexity of the light wave (satura- 
tion). 

4. In respect to the duration of the stimulus. 

5. In respect to the space relations of the stimuli. 

III. Achromatic Sensations. 

1. Qualities. 

2. How produced. 

IV. Color Theories. 

1. The Young-Helmholtz Theory. 

2. The Hering Theory. 

3. The Ladd-Franklin Theory. 

C. Auditory Sensations. 

I. Qualities. 

II. They Vary With the Vibration Rate of the Sound Wave. 

1. The average range of audition. 

2. Pitch discrimination. 

3. Absolute pitch. 

4. Relation between pitch and intensity and extensity of 
stimulus. 

III. They Vary With the Composition of the Sound Wave. 

1. Analysis of a complex wave. 

2. Timbre. 

3. Beats. 

4. Combination tones. 

IV. Theories of Auditorv Sensations. 
1. The Helmholtz theory. 



D. Cutaneous Sensations. 

I. Qualities. Ihere are four qualities, pressure, pain, cold, 
and warm. The evidence that there are four is: 

1. Each one can be isolated. 

2. The stimulation of any isolated spot gives that quality 
only. 

3. Certain chemical substances render certain receptors 
inactive. 

4. Certain parts of the body lack certain receptors. 
II. The Temperature Senses (Cold and Warm). 

1. How located. 

2. Their frequency. 

3. Their relation to pain. 

4. Adaptations. 

III. Pressure Sensations. 

1. How located. 

2. Their frequency. 

3. Adaptations. 

IV. Pain Sensations. 

1. How located. 

2. Frequency. 

3. Adaptations. 

E. Gustatory Sensations. 

I. Qualities. Four qualities. Evidence that there are four is : 

1. Introspective. 

2. Chemical. 
II. Taste Blends. 

III. Taste Mixtures. 

IV. Taste Adaptations. 

F. Olfactory Sensations. 

I. Qualities. 
II. Mixtures. 
III. Adaptations. 

G. Kinaesthetic Sensations. 

I. Muscle Sensations. 

II. Joint Sensations. 

III. Tendinous Sensations. 

IV. Vestibular Sensations. 
V. Ampullar Sensations. 

H. Organic Sensations. 

I. Sensations from the Alimentary Canal. 
II. Sensations from the Respiratory System. 
III. Sensations from the Circulatory System. 

REFERENCES 

Section Breese Titchener Titchener Pillsbury Warren 

Textbook Beginners 

A 107-109 46-57 216-225 

B 175-196 59-92 163-183 

C 153-162 93-108 

D 121-129 143-155 68-74 

E&F 132-143 48-51 74-79 

G&H 110-117 173-192 



CHAPTER VII 
MOTOR RESPONSES : REFLEXES AND INSTINCTS 

A. The Nature of Response in General. 

I. The Inevitability of Response. 
II. Mental vs. Motor Responses. 

III. Learned and Unlearned Responses. 

IV. The Effectors (Organs of Response). 

1. The Muscles. 
1'. The striped muscles. 
2'. The smooth muscles. 

2. Muscular activity. 

3. The Glands. 
1'. The duct glands. 
2'. The ductless glands. 

V. Pattern- Responses. 

4 

B. Reflexive Responses. 

I. Simple Reflexes. 

1. Definition. 

2. Levels of reflexes. 

3. Examples of reflexes. 

II. Compound Reflexes. 

1. Definition. 

2. Types of compound reflexes. 

III. Nature of Reflexive Activity. 

IV. Classification of Reflexes. 

C. Instinctive Responses. 

I. Instincts and Reflexes. They differ in respect to : 

1. Complexity of stimuli. 

2. Complexity of response. 

3. Modifibility of connections. 

II. Definitions of Instincts. 

1. Classical definitions. 

2. Later definitions. 

3. Modern definitions. 

III. How to Detect Instinctive Responses. i 

IV. Classifications of Instinctive Responses. j 

1. On the basis of functions. | 

2. On the basis of racial affinities. 

3. On the basis of responses. 

V. Order and Dates of Appearance and Disappearance. 

1. Instincts connate and delayed. 

2. Theories concerning appearance and disappearance. 

3. The transitoriness of instincts. 

VI. The Modification of Instinctive Responses. 

1. How modified. 

2. What responses are desirable and undesirable. 

3. The process of habituation. 



REFERENCES 

Section Watson Warren Pillsbury Titchener James 

Beginners Br. C. 
A 160-168 

172-193 
B 168-172 95-101 

CI 233 102 282 

CII 231-233 269-270 391 

C III 236-248 267-268 

CIV 254-261 104-108 273-282 

C V&VI 252-254 207-212 395-406 

262-268 



CHAPTER VIII 
MENTAL RESPONSES : EMOTIONS AND FEELINGS 

A. Emotions. 

I. The Relation of Emotions to Instincts. 

1. Points of resemblance. 

2. Points of difference. 

II. Emotional Responses. 

1. Motor Aspects. 

1'. Organic responses. 
2'. Muscular responses. 

2. Mental aspects. (Classification of emotions.) 
1'. Classification on the basis of situations. 

2'. Classification on the basis of the kinaesthetic and 
organic sensations resulting from motor responses. 
3'. Dichotomous classifications. 
4'. Classification on the basis of responses. 
5'. Difficulties of classification. 

III. Emotional Situations. 

1. General characteristics. 

2. Some specific situations. 

IV. James-Lange Theory of the Emotions. 

1. Statement of the theory. 

2. James' defence of the theory. • 

3. Some recent objections to the theory. 
V. Pathological. 

2\ Introspective. 
3'. Experimental. 

4. A revision of the theory. 
V. Expressions of the Emotions. 

VI. The Function of the Emotions. 
VII. Emotional Compounds. 

1. Moods. 

2. Temperaments. 

3. Complexes. 

VIII. Methods of Studying the Emotions. 

1. Introspective method. 

2. Free-association method. 

3. Dream analysis. 

4. Emotional questionary. 

B. Feelings. 

I. Various Uses of the Term. 

1. In everyday life. 

2. In psj'chology. 

II. Relation of Feelings to Emotions. 
III. Situations That Provoke Feelings. 



IV. Feeling (Affective) Responses. 

1. Motor aspects. 

2. Mental aspects (feelings proper). They vary: 
1'. In quality or kind. 

2'. In duration. 
3'. In intensity. 

3. Classification of Feelings. 

V. Relation of Feelings to Sensations. 

1. Points of resemblance. 

2. Points of difference. 

VI. Theories of Feelings. 

1. Biological theories. 

2. Psychological theories. 

3. Physiological theories. 

4. Neurological theories. 

REFERENCES 

Section Pillsbury Breese Titchener Titchener Warren Watson James 

Beginners Textbook Br. C. 

A I 305 384-385 196-198 

A III 320-322 391-394 199-201 

All 308-315 484-489 199-201 

A IV 218-222 474-484 375-384 

AV 387-390 222 214-216 

A VI 394 223-226 

A VII 320-325 497-503 

A VIII 207-211 

B I 290 225-226 

B II & III 257-260 

B IV 297-298 364-365 

B V 228-235 

BVI 298-302 366-368 



i 



I 



i 



r 



CHAPTER IX. 
LEARNED MOTOR RESPONSES: HABIT 

A. The Problem of Learning. 

I. The Preponderance of Learned Motor Responses. 
II. Learning Is Connection Forming. 
III. Two Processes Involved in Learning. 

1. Organization of unlearned responses. 

2. Formation of new connections. 

B. Organization of Unlearned Responses Into Serviceable Habits. 

I. Changing the Pattern of Unlearned Responses. 
II. How Organization Takes Place. 

1. The role of divergent and convergent mechanisms. 

2. Integration into higher units. 

III. The Neurology of the Process. 

C. The Formation of New Connections. 

I. Connecting New Situations with Old Responses. 

1. The conditioned reflex method. 

2. The method of gradual substitution. 

II. Connecting Old Situations with New Responses. 

1. By gradual shifting. 

2. By rewards and punishments. 

III. Connecting New Situations and New Responses. 
This requires: 

1. Some initial drive or motive. 

2. Some elements in the new identical with the old. 

3. Responses to elements of the situation, not to the total. 

4. Responses to various elements by trial and error. 

5. Satisfaction with "successful" and annoyance with 
"unsuccessful" responses. 

IV. Illustrations of These Laws. 

1. In animal behavior. 

1'. The cat in the box. 
2\ The rat in the maze. 

2. In human behavior. 

1'. In solving mechanical puzzles. 
2'. In learning to typewrite. 

V. The Neurology of the Process. 

D. How These Connections Are Strengthened. 

I. By Practice. 

1. The physical features of the practice curve. 

2. The psychological factors involved. 

II. By Eliminating Competing Bonds. 

III. By Rewarding the Desirable and Punishing the Unde- 
sirable. 



E. How Learned Connections Are Retained. 

I. What is Retention? 
II. What Goes On in Periods of No Practice? 

F. Classification of Learned Motor Responses. 

I. The So-called Sensorimotor Acts. 
II. The So-called Ideamotor Acts. 

III. The So-called Voluntary Acts. 

1. Preparation for voluntary acts. 

2. Stimuli of voluntary acts. 

3. The responses. 

IV. Language Habits. 

1. Speech mechanisms. 

2. Formation of speech habits. 

3. Types of language habits. 



Section Pillsbury 



REFERENCES 

Breese Warren 



A&B 
C 
D 
E 



329-330 
334-338 



401-402 



120 
308-313 



Watson 

269-300 

301-309 
310-322 



James 
Br.C, 



134-150 



I 



I 



CHAPTER X 
MENTAL RESPONSES: LEARNING AND RETENTION 

A. Mental Responses in General. 

I. Mental and Motor Responses. 

1. Differ in degree of observability of responses. 

2. Both depend on same laws of learning. 

3. Evidence that mental responses depend on connections. 
1'. Pathological evidence. 

2'. Experimental evidence. 

11. Classification of Learned Mental Responses. 

1. Memory Responses. Memory depends on four pro- 
cesses : 

1'. Fixation: formation of connections (learning). 

2'. Retention : retaining connections. 

3'. Recall : reviving connections. 

4'. Recognition: referring responses to the past. 

2. Perceptual Responses. 

3. Thought Responses. 

B. Materials and Methods of Study. 

I. Materials. 

1. Nonsense material. 

2. Sense material. 
II. Methods. 

1. The reaction methods. 
1'. Association times. 
2'. Order of merit. 

3'. Paired comparisons. 

2. Memory methods. 

1'. The saving method. 

2'. Method of retained parts. 

3'. Learning method. 

4'. Prcmi3tin?T method. 

5'. Paired associates. 

6'. Recognition method. 

C. How Mental Connections Are Formed. 

I. Classical Theories of Knowledge. 
II. Mental Responses Are Acquired by Connecting Things. 

1. New situations connected with old responses. 

2. Old situations connected with new responses. 

3. New situations connected with new responses. 
III. The Neurology of the Process. 

D. Between What Situations and Responses Are Mental Connections 

Made? 
I. Between Various Elements of the Situation. 

1. Between each item and the adjacent items. 

2. Between each item and the remote items of the same 
series. 

3. Between each item and its position in the series. 

4. Between items and groups. 

5. Between items and rhythmic accent. 



II. Between the Total Situation and Various Items. 

1. Between the items and the time and place learned. 

2. Association aids. 

3. Mnemonics. 



E. How Mental Connections Are Retained. 
I. Theories of Retention. 

1. Older theories. 

v. The storage theory. , 

2'. The "impression" theory. 

S\ The "trace'' theory. 

2. Recent theories. 

II. Mental Responses Are Strengthened by Practice. 

1. The practice curve. 

2. Factors conditioning practice. 

III. Retention Depends on Incentives to Work and Attitude 
Taken. 

IV. Retention Depends on the Number of Mutual Bonds 
Formed. 

1. Rote learning. 

2. Logical learning. 

3. Advantages of logical learning. 

V. The Mutual Reinforcement of Bonds. 

1. Cross education. 

2. Transfer of training. 



How Connections Are Weakened and Lost. 
I. Through Disuse. 

1. The curve of forgetting. 

2. Factors causing forgetting. 

II. Through Mutual Interference of Bonds. 
1. Retroactive inhibition. 



III. 



2. Interference. 

Through Pathological Disturbance. 





1. General 


amnesia. 










2. The aphasias. 












REFERENCES 






jction 


Pillsbury 


Breese 


Titchener 
Beginners 


Watson 


James 
Br.C. 


A 


205-208 


278-280 






287-289 


B 






151-152 






E 


142-145 
209-213 
222-227 






385-391 


290-292 


C&D 






152-155 
192-193 






F 


214-218 


245-258 




342-346 





J 



CHAPTER XI 

MENTAL RESPONSES: RECALL AND RECOGNITION 

A. Recall. 

I. Kinds of Recall Responses. 

1. Responses under conscious control. 

2. Responses apparently uncontrolled. 

II. The Stimuli. 

1. Aristotle's Four Laws. Aristotle thought that the con- 
ditions that arouse mental connections to activity fall 
in four groups. 

1'. The law of succession. 
2'. The law of contrast. 
3'. The law of similarity. 
4'. The law of contiguity. 

2. Reduction of these laws to one — contiguity. 

3. The stimuli for most mental responses are the "situa- 
tional contexts" in which the connections were formed. 

4. Cases of apparent *'stimulusless" responses. 

III. Preparation for Mental Responses. 

1. The selection of stimuli. 

2. The control of responses. 

3. Inhibition and facilitation of recall. 
1'. Inhibition. 

2\ Facilitation. 

B. Laboratory Studies of Recall — Association. 

I. Free Association. 

1. Free- vs. controlled association. 

2. The procedure in free-association. 

3. Free-association time. 

4. Classification of responses. 

5. Usual and unusual responses. 

6. Various uses made of the free-association method. 

II. Controlled Association. 

1. Procedure and types of control. 

2. Time of controlled associations. 

3. Preparation for controlled associative reactions. 

4. Analysis of the main-period. 

C. Recognition. 

I. The Relation of Recognition to Recall. 

1. Points of resemblance. 

2. Points of difference. 

II. The Nature of Recognition. 

1. Recognition as a "feeling of familiarity." That is, it is 
a mental response of the "affective type" resulting from 
a perceptual response or a recall response. 

2. Recognition as a mental response of the "memory 
type." 



III. Mediate and Immediate; or Indirect and Direct, Recogni- 
tion. 

1. The immediate or direct. 

2. The mediate or indirect. 

IV. The Importance of Recognition. 







REFERENCES 






iction 


Pillsbury 


Breese 


Titchener 
Beginners 


James 
Br.C. 


A 


146-158 


241-245 


146-147 


253-277 


B 


218-222 


280-288 
290-298 


162-169 




C 


227-231 


245-248 


177-181 





k 



ft 



CHAPTER XII 

MENTAL RESPONSES : IMAGERY AND IMAGINATION 

A. Forms of Imagery Responses. 

I. Sensory Images. 
II. Memory Images. 
III. Imagination Images. 

B. Sensory Images. 

I. Relations to Perceptions. 

1. Differences in character of stimulus. 

2. Dependence of images on perceptions. 

3. Supposed differences in intensity. 

4. Supposed differences in duration. 

5. Supposed differences in projection. 

6. Differences in context. 

II. Confusions of Percepts and Images. 

1. Confusions are rare. 

2. Confusions seen in hallucinations and pseudo-hallucina- 
tions. 

C. Memory Images. 

I. Relation to Recall. 

1. Recall as considered here is imageless. 

2. Imagery not the basis of all memory. 

II. Learned Connections as the Basis of the Memory Image. 
III. The Memory After-image. 

D. Imagination Images. 

I. How Different from Other Images. 

II. Forms of Imagination. 

1. Reproductive imagination. 

2. Productive imagination. 

1'. The controlled, constructive, creative type. 
2'. The uncontrolled type. 

E. Imagery Types. 

I. Types Based On the Sense Organs. 

1. The visual type. 

2. The auditory type. 

3. The motor type. 

4. The mixed type. 

II. How the Types Are Determined. 

1. By introspection. 

2. By objective tests. 

III. Experimental Studies of Imagery. 

1. The studies of Sir Francis Galton. 

2. The experiments of Betts. 



F. The Functions of Imagery. 

I. Its Role in Mental Life. 

1. Imagery in memory work. 

2. Imagery in comparison and judgment. 

3. Imagery in perception. 

4. Imagery in thinking. 

II. Its Role in Motor Activity. 

1. In voluntary acts. 

2. In aesthetics. 

III. Imagery as One Type of Mental Response. 







REFERENCES 




jction 


Pillsbury 


Titchener 
Beginners 


Titchener 
Textbook 


Breese James 


A&B 


158-161 








C 




184-186 


416-421 




D 




197-200 




261-269 


E 


161-164 






269-276 Vol. II 51-75 



CHAPTER XIII 
MENTAL RESPONSES : PERCEPTION 

A. The Nature of Perceptual Responses. 

I. The Problems of Perception. 
II. The Elements of Perception. 

1. It requires a sensory stimulus. 

2. It requires a memory response. 

3. It requires a background or context. 

III. How Perceptual Bonds Are Formed. 

IV. The Neurology of the Process. 

1. The role of convergent mechanisms. 

2. Perceptual areas are different from sensory areas. 

3. The role of divergent mechanisms. 

B. The Perception of Objects. 

I. The Stimuli. 

1. Sensations as stimuli. 

2. Pure sensations. 

3. The operation of stin;iuli. 

II. The Responses. 

1. Theories concerning the relation of perceptual stimuli 
to responses. 

2. Responses dependent on certain intricate connections. 

3. Trial percepts. 

4. False perceptual responses (Illusions). 

III. Preparation for Perceptual Responses. 

1. The selection of the stimuli. 

2. The control of the responses. 

C. The Perception of Space. 

I. Problems and Theories. 

1. Problems. 

2. Theories. 

II. Perception of One-dimensional Space: Position and Lo- 
cality. 

1. Absolute position. 

2. Relative position. 

3. The theory of local signs. 

III. Perception of Two-dimensional Space: Surface, Distance. 

1. The space senses. 

2. Combinations of local signs. 

3. Distance on the skin. 

4. Distance and direction in the outer world. 

IV. Perception of Three-dimensional Space. 

1. Senses involved. 

2. Part played by vision. 

8. Part played by movement. 

4. Part played by touch. 

5. Part played by hearing. 



I 



V. Space Illusions. 

1. Eye movement theories. 

2. The dynamic theory. 

3. Psychological theories. 

D. The Perception of Time. 

I. Its basis. Two theories. 
II. How we estimate time. 

E. Perception of Motion. 

I. How motion is perceived. 
II. Part played by after-images. 



Section Pillsbury Titchener Breese Warren James 

Beginners 

A 169-171 112-117 200-201 251-255 5r.C. 312-334 

174-176 

B 174-175 118-119 198-205 249-250 Vol.11 82-83 
C 176-186 213-230 5r.C. 334-350 

D&E 186-192 230-237 255-257 



CHAPTER XIV 
MENTAL RESPONSES : THINKING AND REASONING 

A. The Stimuli. 

I. Problem Situations. 

II. Internal and External Stimuli. 

III. Total Situations. 

IV. Words as Stimuli. 

B. The Responses. 

I. Part Played by Responses Already Studied. 

1. Affective or feeling responses. 

2. Recall and recognition responses. 

3. Perceptual responses. 

4. Certain motor responses, especially language. 

II. Meaning. (Perception and Recognition.) 

1. Some characteristics of meaning. 

2. Meaning as a complex of responses. 

3. How meanings are stimulated and expressed. 

4. How meanings are acquired. 

III. Judgment (Perception, Recall and Recognition). 

1. Judgment as an answer to a question. 

2. Judgment as ascription of meaning. 

3. Judgment as the relation between a question situation 
and a perception-recall-recognition response. 

4. Kinds of judgment. 

IV. Concept (Recall, Recognition, Perception, Imagery). 

1. Concept as an image and its meaning. 

2. Concept as responses to elements common to many situ- 
ations. 

3. Development of concepts. 

4. Language and concepts. 

V. Unique Thought Responses. 

Thinking may involve a type of response peculiar to itself. 

1. Discovery and names. 

2. Classification of marbs. 

. 1'. Those having a subjective reference. 
2'. Those having an objective reference — kulps. 

3. Interpretations of marbs. 

1'. That they are unique thought response? — the doc- 
trine of imageless thought. 
2'. Other interpretations. 

C. Thought Mechanisms. 

I. Situational mechanisms. 
II. Preparation mechanisms. 
III. Response mechanisms. 

1. Awareness of meaning. 

2. Awareness of facts, objects, etc. 

3. Awareness of past experiences. 

4. Awareness of relations. 



D. Reasoning. 

I. Preparation for Reasoning. 

1. Why people seldom reason. 

2. Reasoning requires a problem or question. 

3. The selective nature of the problem. 

4. Reasoning begins with the conclusion. 

II. The Situations. 

1. Situations of the problem type. 

2. Situations are novel. 

III. The Responses. 

1. Responses are of the perception-recall-recognition type. 

2. Part played by perception. 

3. Part played by recall and recognition. 

IV. Psychology vs. Logic in Respect to Reasoning. 

1. Psychology is concerned with the process. 

2. The syllogism. 

3. Psychology reverses the syllogism. 

V. Errors in Reasoning. 

REFERENCES 

Section Watson Pillsbury Breese Titchener James Titchener 

Beginners Br. C. Textbook 

A&B 322-334 245-258 299-337 261-286 151-175 505-554 

D 241-244 338-355 351-369 

259-264 



I 



av. 



CHAPTER XV 
INTEGRATIONS 

A. The Problem of Integration. 

I. The Problem of Dealing with a Total Person. 

II. The Problem of Finding an Integrating Principle. 

1. Organization of responses. 

2. Genetic development. 

3. Driving forces. 

III. The Problem of Finding Integrating Factors. 

B. Intelligence. 

I. Definition. 

1. Instantaneous intelligence. 

2. Brain power. 

II. Intelligent Behavior. 

III. Measurements of Intelligence. 

1. Pre-suppositions. 

2. Measurements in terms of mental age. 

3. Measurements in terms of units on a scale. 

4. Measurements by relative rankings. 

C. Character. 

I. Definitions. 

1. Character as moral conduct. 

2. Character as one's general rating. 

3. Character as predictibility of responses. 

II. Measurements of Character. 

1. Phrenology. 

2. Physiognomy. 

3. Handwriting. 

4. Rating scales. 

D. Individuality. 

I. Definition. 
II. Measurements of Individuality. 

E. Personality. 

I. Definitions. 

1. Personality as magnetism, etc. 

2. Personality as one's total assets and liabilities (Wat- 
son). 

II. Measurements and Estimates of Personality. 

1. Difficulties involved. 

2. Rating scales. 

3. Objective tests. 



t^ 



F. The Self. 

I. What the Self Includes. 

II. Characteristics of The Self. 

1. Its continuity (personal identity). 

2. Its unity and individuality. 

3. Its consistency. 

III. Self-realization. 

REFERENCES 

Section Pillsbury Warren Watson James Titchener 

Br, C, Beginners 
A & B 395-407 128-130 
391-404 
C&D 374-383 405-411 

E 383-389 392-404 

F 408-422 176-216 307-321 



1 



I 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



ii 




